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Trafficking for Sex Work and Social Rehabilitation of Commercial Sex Workers
in Edo and Lagos States, Nigeria

by

R. A. Aborisade and A. A. Aderinto

Nigeria contributes to the global problem of the trafficking of young women and girls mainly for sexual exploitation, despite concerted efforts by the government and nongovernment organization to quell the growth of the illicit trade. Using information gathered from victims of sex trafficking, officials of rehabilitation centers, opinion leaders and experts of collaborating agencies in Edo and Lagos States of Nigeria, Case studies, in-depth and key-Informant Interviews, this paper probes the strategies employed by the traffickers and activities that characterize the recruitment and trafficking into sex work. It also discusses the experience of the victims of sex trafficking after their ‘rescue’ from traffickers and subsequent referral for social rehabilitation in Nigeria. The study found parents, family, and significant others to be both facilitators of recruitment and exploiters of the prostitution of their relatives.

The recruitment patterns and trafficking processes were characterized with incidences of deception, extortion, violence and exploitation with severe consequences on the emotional, psychological and health condition of the victims. The victims’ age, trafficking experience, prostitution history, mode of admission into rehabilitation centres and residential status were found to be a great influence on their adjustment to social rehabilitation. The study suggests the use of formal and informal channels of education to enlighten the populace on the ulterior motives of the traffickers. Also, the design of intervention programs should be sensitive to the various social categories of the clients with specific cases accorded specialized attention.

Tax Burden, Slave Trade and Human Trafficking in Northern Nigeria in the 1930s

by

Mohammed Sanni Abdulkadir

The 1930s was a period characterized by the worldwide Great Economic Depression. Available sources on northern Nigeria during the 1930s have shown certain distinct characteristics that need critical analysis, which this paper proposes to do. The distinct characteristics include the re-appearance of the supposedly suppressed slave trade and human trafficking, especially of women and children. Taxation was a major instrument utilized by the British to maintain existing revenue levels. However, the British authorities adjusted the tax rates to suit incomes during the Depression. They collected the tax as a capitation levy, and not as a true income tax. While money incomes were drastically reduced, the tax demanded remained the same as it had been on the eve of the depression in 1928. Indeed, the rate and burden of colonial taxation were very high and so incongruent with depression realities. The theoretical and hypothetical structure of tax assessment meant that the unfortunate, the sick, the burdened, the old, and in fact many others, often had to pay what to them were large sums of money for tax, and frequently found this impossible. The period also witnessed food shortages in many places resulting in famine and starvation. The structure of northern Nigeria economy and the depression era economic realities have implications on adjustment and struggling mechanism. Some of the struggling and surviving mechanisms were slave trade and human trafficking.

Girl Saving and Public Policy in Lagos 1940 – 1960

by

George A. Abosede

For almost two decades between the close of the Second World War and Nigerian independence in 1960, the British colonial state in Lagos upheld city ordinances that made itinerant trading by young children in Lagos a punishable offense.  Although anti-trading regulations were gender-neutral in their language, girls were disproportionatel sanctioned for engaging in street trading and related activities.  In defending their concentration on girl sellers over boy sellers, colonial welfare officials painted a picture of the urban context as an inherently dangerous context and of girls as being particularly at risk of violent assault in the city, making them particularly in need of protection from town life.  This paper explores constructions of urban public space and African girlhood in the debates around the anti-trading ordinance to consider the governmental functions of narratives of urban peril and juvenile vulnerability.

Infor mation Communication Technology(ICT): A Leveler on Gender Disparity

by

Samiat Olubunmi Abubakre

he fact that there is free access to the facilities of the ICT is a great opportunity for everybody to have means of expression without hitch. It is from this perspective that the present study examines the contributions of selected women singers to indigenous language development in Nigeria. In doing this, we analyse jargons in music that have gain currency within the speech community regardless of age , sex, locality and level of education. Our findings show that the jargons, apart from having various semantics, have enhanced the development of the lexicon of these languages. The method of data collection is through excerpts from musical productions on compact disc that are featured on radio, television and the internet. Our conclusion is that the facilities of ICT had bridged the gaps that existed in achievement opportunity between women and men singers. It is therefore obvious that much can be done by other women through the facilities of ICT.

The cultural psychology of gender, self, and relationship: A perspective from African Studies

by

Glenn Adams
Tugce Kurtis

n influential strain of North American feminist thought has emphasized the importance of relationality or communion in "women's ways of knowing". Strong versions of this perspective emphasize in almost essentialist terms how universal conditions of women's experience (e.g., predominance in caregiving roles) promote characteristically "relational" (or "communal") tendencies of self-understanding, moral reasoning, intimacy, and interpersonal relationship that lead women to desire and create promotion-focused, high-disclosure, intimacy-seeking forms of connection to a greater extent than men do. In contrast, our research has compared psychological experience in various West African and North American settings to illuminate and emphasize the cultural-historical foundations of intimacy and relationship. Results of this research suggest that the promotion-focused, high-disclosure, intimacy-seeking forms of connection associated with experience of North American women (a) do not extend to responses of women in Ghanaian settings, who tend to desire and create these forms of connection to a lesser extent than do similarly situated men; and (b) are not defining features of a universal gender regime rooted in women's inherently relational or communal selves, but instead reflect North American women's engagement with broader sociocutlural affordances that promote affective individualism, liberal economic subjectivity, and an atomistic conception of self and relationship . The research resonates with insights from postcolonial feminist scholarship in two ways. First, it directs attention to the potential for intellectual imperialism inherent in universalist discourses of feminist psychology and relationship science. Second, it helps to illuminate the ironically individualist foundations of mainstream feminist psychologies of gender, self, and relationship.

Transgender and Sexuality: A Moral Viewpoint

by

Oluwaseun Adeola Adenugba

This paper discusses the issues of transgender and the worries generated by this practice. It points out some of the reasons why some people feel uncomfortable with their sexual identity. It elaborates the procedure involved in intervening with the sexual make up of man such as surgical operations and intake of drugs like silicon. The paper also recognizes the divergent opinions as to the morality and immorality of transgender. A school of thought argues that it is a medical condition and that those who experience the condition do not feel on the inside to be the gender that their bodies are perceived to be. Another school argues that it is irrational, unnatural and should not be encouraged. This paper thus argues that the reasons for this intervention are not good reasons for anyone to interrupt, influence or intervene with sexuality which is unique. The problem with transgender seem to be similar with those generated by acts like homosexuality, lesbianism etc. The paper further argues that instead of this aggressive intervention, it will be ideal to go into in-depth discussion with the concerned people, listen to their worries and see ways in which their problems could be addressed through counseling.

Gender Roles and Womanhood in Africa: Perspective of African Traditional Religion

by

Ibigbolade Simon Aderibigbe

The United Nations decade for women culminated in the 1985 World Congress on women. The congress passed a total of 300 resolutions – all on forward looking strategies to advance women – indeed women globally. The engagements and proactive dynamics to advance the course of women in the “scheme of things”, or perhaps situate the feminine gender in more advantageous positions are products of popular and sometimes taken for granted “teachings” of male propounded school of thought that men are superior to women. The interpretation of this persepective, even among women themselves, has inevitably projected male domination as only being consonant with the natural order of things.

Unfortunately, the African society, particularly the traditional one, has often been cited as a model of male domination and the relegation of women to the obscure background of “to be seen but not to be heard”. However we are of the strong conviction that this is, at best, inappropriate observation and evaluation of the status of women in the African society. Indeed from the perspective of the African traditional Religion, which encompassed the totality of the African life, the roles ascribed to women strategically situated them in very influential and decision making processes in their various communities. Particularly a close and objective examination mythology, proverbs and prayers, among other features of African traditional Religion, not only provide incontrovertible evidence of the very important status of women in Africa, but actually showcase their elevation to prized and protected segment of the society- to the extent that they are regarded as “flowers in the garden”. This prized status of women culminates in the motherhood role of women in Africa.

Achebe’s Proverbs, Gender Issues and Use: A Sociolinguistic Investigation

by

Dele S. Adeyanju
Udoka N. Asiyanbola (Nee Ozim)

This work focuses on the sociolinguistic analysis of proverbs in two of Chinua Achebe’s novels - No longer at ease and Anthills of the savannah. Scholars such as Sietel, Lindfors, Ogbaa Kalu, Nwachukwu-Agbada, Nelson Fashina, etc, have at one time or the other worked on Achebe’s proverbs. Nwachukwu-Agbada, in particular, has done an extensive examination of proverbs in Achebes novels.  In his work, he examines the uses to which Achebe has put Igbo proverbs in his novels: their services as thematic hints and reinforcements, satirical, ironical and sarcastic quips, instructional and social control, characterization, and rhetorical tools. He states that these functions in Achebe’s novels apart from advancing his narratives authenticate their social and cultural setting (Nwachukwu-Agbada, 1990: 330). Other works which are not necessarily limited to Achebe’s on proverbs as Fashina (2006) observes, have focused on definitional problematics, classifications, semantic structures, historical and cultural values, as well as gender inclinations, and of course as a tool of patriarchal repudiation as Fashina’s paper purports.

Though it may be contended that Sietel and Nwachukwu-Agbada have included ethnographic researches in their works; it is equally true that they have done more of sociological studies than sociolinguistic analysis. While both disciplines above are related, the former pays more attention to development of social institutions, structures and relationships; the latter to linguistic behaviors as determined by socio-cultural factors. The present work therefore finds its uniqueness in undertaking a purely sociolinguistic study of proverbs using the Dell Hymes speaking grid as its mode of analysis. The present study is hinged on finding out how Achebe as a literary writer has been able to explore:- The use of proverbs as a means of depicting the rich African cultural norm generally, and in particular, the Igbo cultural lifestyle within its prevalent sociolinguistic background. The social roles proverbs perform in conversation How frequent they occur in the speech of males in relation to females in the text being studied. Also the study attempts to answer questions such as: Are there societal norms/expectations regarding who uses proverbs? Are there specified contexts of proverb usage? Does age play any role in the use of proverbs within a given speech community?

The Portrayal of Mothers-in-law in Nigerian movies: The good, the bad and oh, so wicked!

by

Aje-Ori Agbese

In marriages around the world, one stereotype that endures is that of the evil, wicked mother-in-law. The stereotype is also fuelled by media that continuously promote the image of the selfish, overbearing and wicked mother-in-law, rivaled only by the evil stepmother. Take film for instance.

Film is a very powerful cultural tool as people can learn values and norms from it. The Nigerian film industry is one of the largest in the world and has become more than just an entertainment tool. Audiences are informed, educated, sensitized and sometimes persuaded on Nigerian issues through these movies. Therefore, a movie that promotes a stereotype might be doing more than entertaining. It could also be teaching people what to expect in reality.

Therefore, this paper examines how Nigerian movies portray mothers-in-laws. Using a content analysis of Yoruba and English movies on mothers-in-law, this paper explores the image of mothers-in-laws, what audiences are taught about them, and what their roles should be in the Nigerian context. Understanding these connotations is important, particularly since the government, and the UN, sees women as important tools for Nigeria’s development. Such portrayals could affect the relationships women have with each other.

“Weaponizing Rape and HIV/AIDS:
The Limits of International Criminal Law in Post-Conflict Reconstruction”

by

Obijiofor Aginam

In July 2008, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1820 noting that “women and girls are particularly targeted by the use of sexual violence, including as a tactic of war”; “rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute a war crime, a crime against humanity, or a constitutive act with respect to genocide”. While t he history of wars and conflicts is replete with systematic incidents of rape and other sexual violence against vulnerable women, modern-day wars have witnessed increased “intentional” and indiscriminate deployment of rape as a weapon of war by combatants. Focusing on the “weaponization of HIV”, this paper traces the often missing links between HIV/AIDS, wars/conflicts, and victims of rape in reconstructing post-war societies through the process of Disarmament, Demobilization, and Re-integration (DDR). The AIDS pandemic is exacerbated in complex ways by violent conflicts and civil wars that are marked by indiscriminate rape of women by combatants, breakdown of health infrastructure, and sometime sexual relations between peacekeepers/combatants and commercial sex workers. One conspicuous phenomenon of recent armed conflicts is the deliberate targeting of civilians and the widespread use of rape, which has been deployed as a systematic tool of warfare in conflicts in Liberia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan, Mozambique, Rwanda, Former Yugoslavia, and Sierra Leone. One striking difference between the use of rape as a weapon of war in pre – 1990 conflicts, and latter-day wars is the emergence of, and “willful” transmission of HIV to the victims – an incurable virus that decimates the immune system of the human body. Although serious questions have been raised in literature about the actual time transmission or infection occurs, and whether the intent of the perpetrators of rape could conclusively be to infect the victim with the virus, there is preponderance of evidence from the victims’ accounts that confirm the deliberate nature of these acts. Victims of rape as a weapon of war have an inalienable right to reparation, psychological and physical rehabilitation, and access to social measures, and health security. Since cash payments are often made to ex-combatants to induce them to de-mobilize, there is no reason why cash payments should also not be made to HIV-infected victims of rape to enable them survive on anti-retroviral therapies. The “right to survive” should take the centre stage in contemporary AIDS diplomacy on access to anti-retroviral drugs. While the post conflict state should lead the way, international organizations (regional and global), bilateral and multilateral donor agencies, global civil society organizations must channel their efforts specifically to this neglected aspect of DDR – the psycho-medical rehabilitation of HIV-infected victims of the “weaponization of HIV/AIDS”. This paper shall focus on selected post-conflict states: Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, etc.

Violence Against Women in Post-Conflict Liberia: Challenges of Peace building

by

Chris Agoha

The phenomenon of violence is not in itself a socio-cultural anomaly. The nature and conditions of violence in human society has been the subject of numerous studies. Just as altruism or creativity, it is constructed within a culture. But, if violence is an integral part of human culture, how can we reconcile it with the modern and legal rejection of harming or killing of people. From evidence of gendered analysis of post-conflict situation in Liberia, women face not only the continuation of some of the aggression they endured during war, but also new forms of violence in a post conflict dispensation. Post conflict violence against women may be exacerbated by the reintegration of ex-combatants into the society without the necessary psychological services, and this may lead to increased violence in the household, where women and children are often the easiest targets for aggression. The paper examines some of the conceptual and theoretical argument regarding violence in a post-conflict state. It analyzes the nature and patterns of violence against women. The paper then assesses the peace-building approach as a post-conflict development strategy, and how it can mitigate violence against women and ensure the sustainability of peace and stability. The paper conclude with a call on international and national stakeholders to show more commitment in ensuring that women are protected from risks to their physical or psychological safety, dignity, rights and wellbeing.

Feminity and the Practice of Medicine: The Asante Experience

by

Yaw Sarkodie Agyeman

Femininity as a social construct with its ambiguities, especially within the African context, has practical purposes. One of the practical purposes is seen in the field of medicine. This paper examines how the social construct of femininity is used in the practice of medicine among one African people, the Asante of Ghana. It uses a phenomenological approach by examining Asante practice of aduro (medicine) in its various meanings by exposing the use of objects from the plant, animal and human kingdoms as well as rocks and water bodies regarded to be females, as against the use of species regarded as males, for some medicinal purposes and the rationale behind the practice. While the paper does not seek to re-construct the concept of femininity, it brings to the open that the contradictions and the ambiguities in the concept are purposefully constructed and one of the purposes is demonstrated in the field of medicine which is also conceptually ambiguous.

Women and Trans border smuggling activities:
A historical appraisal of gender involvement in the Lagos/ Seme illegal trade traffic.

by

Elizabeth Adenike Ajayi

Smuggling across the Nigerian borders is an age long phenomenon. What is recent and amazing is the population of the women who are now involved in this activity which hither to was considered a male preserve. Also intriguing is the diversified nature of the smuggled goods which is expanded to include consumable items, hard drugs and even children! This paper which is an historical appraisal of gender involvement in the Lagos/Seme smuggling activities, examines the range of smuggled products, the strategies of the smugglers and the enabling conditions that enhanced the thriving of these nefarious activities. The paper concludes by reviewing some of the measures adopted by the Federal Government of Nigeria to stem the tide of this development with a view of determining their adequacy or otherwise.

Community Education and the Learning Needs of Women in Rural Areas in Nigeria

by

Joshua Olusola Akande, B.C. Simeon-Fayomi, and C.A. Babalola

The problem of rural development in Nigeria is a multifaceted one. Problems in development can be traced to the situation of rural women. In order to aid them, their learning needs have been viewed as enormous. This paper argues that if the Millennium Development goals (MDGS) are to be actualized, the learning needs of women in the rural areas are to be x-rayed and met. This paper therefore discusses the relevance of community education with its built-in problem-solving potential and propensity to engender self-reliance as a tool to affect positive changes in the lives of women in the rural areas in Nigeria. The paper emphasizes that the promotion of community education especially in relation to women should be taken into consideration while planning rural development programs in Nigeria. It equally suggests the need to utilize community resources for the implementation of community education programs in favor of rural women.

“Getting the Best From Culture”: Functionality of Culture in Facilitating Adult Learning in Nigeria

by

Joshua Olusola Akande

Culture denotes many things in Nigeria. It is art, religion, tradition, environment, and life rolled together as one. This paper examines the dynamics of culture in facilitating adult learning in Nigeria. This paper notes that identity gives a sense of self-worth, which is needed in adult learning. This paper also under-scores the fact that the quality of adult learners’ self-concept is necessary for determining their commitment to learning. The paper argues and highlights that such expressions of culture as feast days, work parties and special songs, dances/dancers and costumes are motivational tools to enhance adults’ participation in adult education programs—formal or informal—such as literacy education, community development, women education, vocational and technical education. In adult literacy classes, stories, songs, dances, and other forms of cultural expressions are adjudged powerful tools in facilitating adult learning. In addition, folklore and music, apart from being forms of entertainment, equally educate and inform adult learners. In addition, the performing arts are particularly effective teaching tools in formal and informal adult educational system. The paper concludes that adult education should be a function of the cultural matrix in which it operates.

Gender - Based Violence and the Quest for Sustainable Development in Nigeria

by

Solomon O. Akinboye and Damilola T. Agbalajobi

A Challenge to Equal Opportunities in Africa:
The Dearth of Women in the Engineering Profession

by

Joe O. Akinmusuru
Kehinde A. Taiwo

In most developing countries, female education has traditionally been accorded low priority. Young women have always had fewer opportunities for intellectual growth than men. Education is often the only formal medium through which the in-built inequalities in gender opportunities can be corrected. Even then, prevailing cultural and social norms have often adversely hindered female advancement in society. This situation is worse when it comes to science education for young women.

All over the world, the pace of technology has made it imperative that both men and women must be accorded equal opportunity and exposure to technological education. Even in developed economies, such as the United States, gross inequalities still exist between the genders in opportunities and achievement level in such ‘hard sciences’ as engineering. Studies have shown that no more than 10% of all those obtaining the bachelor’s degree in engineering annually in the United States are women. This is not surprising since admission to undergraduate engineering programs is equally low. Other studies have however conclusively shown that there is no discernible difference in aptitude for mathematics and sciences between the genders in pre-adolescence years. It has thus become abundantly clear that the dearth of women in the engineering profession can be traced to a profuse leakage in the educational pipeline between the middle school and high school years.

The implication for Africa is clear, especially with all the societal taboos inherent in the education of women. This paper examines the causal factors that are responsible for female underachievement in the engineering disciplines, with particular emphasis to the African society. The experiences of one author (KAT) are instructive, as we recall her dogged struggle to contend and succeed through college as one of a few young women in this ‘macho’ world, her pushback determination in academia and in the politics of the professional practice, and her role as a role model and mentor for young women in her institution. The paper further proposes appropriate intervention processes that may be advanced to improve female achievement in the technological sciences.

“ When Women Were Land-Lords and Bread Winners”: The Kuza Tin Mine Phenomenon in Jos and the Plight of Women in Tiv Society of Central Nigeria, c1902-1945

by

Philip Akpen

Historicizing Greek Creation Myths: Matriachy-Patriachy Dichotomy.

by

Idowu Mojeed Alade

Scholars have attempted various interpretations of myths, applying many theories. Two of these are (i) the Charter theory of Bronislaw which interprets myths as explanations of reasons behind certain custom cum social beliefs; and (ii) the Archetypal theory of Jung that views myths as essentially the same, regardless of time and space. The Greek creation myths identify the goddess Gaea, the Earth Mother goddess, as the Unmoved Mover, mother of the gods, men and all that exists; before Gaea, only Chaos was in existence. Hesiod, in his Theogony, celebrates the emergence of the god Zeus as the father of men and gods. We shall observe in these mythical accounts of the creation of the world a gradual and subtle transfer of authority from the female gender to their male counterpart. This trend, as noted in the realm of mythology, is even more predominant in history, ancient and modern; distant and recent. It is also noteworthy that men, including substantial number of women, for whatever reason, are never comfortable when women are in charge or seem to wield some significant authority. From the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra to the Iyalode Efunsetan of Ibadanland, the inclinations appear similar. The paper attempts to historicize the ancient Greek creation myths, drawing parallels within the corpus of African history with the conclusion that the gender imbalance is embedded within our cultural heritage and that it is still as fresh as ever; from the He God of our religions, to the first human being Mr. Adam, the feminine gender is still, and remains the number two gender.

Married Men’s Extramarital Sex and HIV Risk Among Women in Southwestern Nigeria

by

Yetundea Aluko

For women in contemporary Nigeria, as in many settings, simply being married can contribute to the risk of contracting HIV. This paper examined married men’s extramarital sexual behaviour in the context of modern marriage in south-western Nigeria. The findings revealed that the social organization of infidelity is more shaped by economic inequality, aspirations for modern lifestyles, gender disparities, and contradictory moralities, rather than immoral sexual behaviour and traditional culture. Although they are contributory factors. The paper therefore concludes that a significant proportion of extramarital relationships require social and economic transformations beyond the scope of conventional public health programs.

Infertility Diagnosis and Treatment:
Interpretation of Sexism and Patriarchal Norms in Ijebu, South Western Nigeria

by

Sunday Olusola Aluko-Arowolo

In Africa a woman’s marital success and status are linked with her fertility. Failure to have children is seen as a curse which often leads to stigmatization, battery and divorce. Investigation to the causes of infertility and therapy in the female partner is always elaborate and more rigorous with attendant inconveniences, risks and burdensome. Treatment and its costs in social and cash rest often squarely on the women. Sometime the agony is exacerbated when the therapies fail to mitigate the problem. The man is often not considered sterile because only the women are believed to be culpable for family reproductive liability.

Social Constructionism theory,ala Berger and Luckmann was adopted which was postulated that no reality exists outside what is produced and reproduced in social interactions. Methodologically, sample size of 250 respondents was selected for interview through purposeful random sampling to elicit responses from women and men on the subject matter. Twelve indepth interviews were conducted among Gynecologists, Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) and opinion leaders.

The results amongst other submissions saw cultural and medical conspiracy against women in terms of healthcare seeking and consumption. It was suggested therefore that men should also be subjected to the same rigorous medico-spiritual diagnosis and treatment.

Divorce for Breaking Cups: Gender Discourse in George Mukabi’s Music

by

Maurice Amutabi

Many Kenyans grew up listening to the music of maestro George Mukabi. His music is constantly reproduced by modern bands in Kenya, in new forms and versions. His records have dominated the airwaves for many years through the then monopoly Voice of Kenya (Kenya Broadcasting Corporation) to the present numerous FM radio stations. George Mukabi was a master composer and was one of the most influential musicians in colonial and post colonial Kenya and his ideas influenced life at many levels. I did not pay a lot of attention to the text and subtext in Mukabi’s music until recently. Listening to his music, one can detect some patriarchal overtones as well as misogynistic posturing. Historians have used music as primary sources to reconstruct history. Using George Mukabi’s music such as his hit song Awinja (where Awinja is sent packing by her husband for breaking cups) I will analyze how patriarchal power is constructed, contested, and negotiated through discursive deployment of Mukabi’s advice to men, in how to deal with their wives. My argument is that Mukabi’s music serves to enforce some aspects of cultural oppression of women embedded in gender stereotypes that have been an integral part of the Abaluyia and Kenyan society. I will show how this type of music undermines dialogue between sexes. I will explain how Mukabi’s music perpetuated patriarchal ideas present in the wider culture of the Abaluyia and other Kenyan ethnic groups. The study shows how lyrical, musical and compositional arrangements and words aid in the negotiation and perpetuation of patriarchal ideologies and structures. Through reproductions and reordering of Mukabi’s songs, his message is constantly naturalized in everyday discourse between men and women in Kenya. I interrogate Mukabi’s articulation of sexuality, gender relations, gender roles, gender stereotypes, patriarchy, power and resource allocation, and how his music influenced male actions and thinking about women for generations.

Matangazo ya Biashara na Jinsia: Examination of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising in Kenya and implications for social relations

by

Maurice Amutabi

In one interesting famous advertisement (commercial) of 1980s in Kenya, a man throws a bun (mandazi) at his wife, shouting in anger, ‘ngumu sana’ (too hard). The ad seems to suggest that the woman has prepared buns using the wrong cooking oil. It implores the woman to be a good wife by using good cooking oil. The new oil will make her prepare good buns and earn the affection of her husband. Although watched and perhaps appreciated by the lovers of this brand of cooking oil (kapa), the commercial was sexist. There were many such commercials in the past which presented woman as subservient, and expected to take care of their husbands or men in their lives. The women lacked agency. Hardly were they presented as requiring equal treatment. The commercials presented a successful woman as one whose family was happy and satisfied, especially the husband, unintentionally suggesting that the products would act as their aid in making their families happy. Beginning in the 1990s and 2000s, largely as a result of gender sensitization, the commercials became sensitive and presented woman with a more empowered sense of self. But this was diluted with commercials that presented women as happy when men bought them certain products. This new approach objectified women, especially beauty products which were supposed to make men’s head to turn. A woman who turned many heads was seen as desirable and attractive. These ads reversed the previous stereotype, pushing women from marginality to disempowerment. This paper argues that these advertisements not only misrepresented women and their roles in society, but in fact marginalized them, presenting them as weak and helpless. The family woman, working hard to please her children and husband was replaced by a scantily dressed, skinny and sensual woman, waiting to be pleased. The matriarchal figure caring for a stable home was replaced by a concubine, pleasure seeking image. The self confident matriarch was replaced by a new emergent character, a phenomenon that seemed to erase the important role that women played in society. The new ‘sexy’ commercials objectified women, focusing attention on their faces, breasts, hips and other parts of their bodies, representing them as sexual and sexualized objects. With a different reading of these commercials, the paper faults new forms of advertizing that are focusing increasingly in creating ideal bodies, in imitation of Western ads. I argue that this is the new frontier of colonization of the minds of Africans, contending that the ads target younger populations and have the causative effect of affecting future generations and beyond.

Dimensions of gender and albinist spy-ritual deification in Africa: The Iya Oyinbo Conjuration

by

Kayode Animasaun

The thrust of scholarship is the analyses of the perceptions of genders’ positions in development. Across cultures each gender has specific roles arrogated to them by culture, social, religious and psychological demands among others. In Nigeria for instance, there are problems associated with enforcement of culturally and socially determined gender roles. Beyond gender delineations for especially the woman that have divinely been assigned as procreators, there are ritual attachments to the definition of females especially virgins and new babies.

History, Memory and Imagination: Na Agontimé, a Dahomean queen in Brazil

by

Ana Lucia Araujo

The denunciation of the present social and racial inequalities, the fight against racism as well as the emergence of Afro-Brazilian claims for civil rights, have led to the development of different forms of cultural assertion. At the heart of this process, one sees the valorization of the bonds with Africa through dance, music, visual arts, and religion. These various attempts to promote the role of Afro-Brazilian historical actors, such as Zumbi de Palmares, Queen Nzinga, and Na Agontimé, are reconstructing the memory of slavery and helping to rewrite Brazilian official history. This paper examines the case of the Dahomean queen Nà Agontime, one of the wives of the King Agonglo (1789-1797) and the putative mother of King Gezo (r. 1818-58), who was sent into slavery to Brazil by King Adandozan (r. 1797-1818). It relies both on written documents, European travel narratives, literary works, songs and public manifestations, as well on the works developed by scholars as Pierre Verger. The paper tries to understand how history, memory and imagination have helped to reconstruct the trans-Atlantic journey of Nà Agontime, today celebrated in museums, songs, and during carnaval as a symbol of the African roots of Brazil and as the one who introduced the Abomey vodun to the Brazilian state of Maranhão, where it is practiced at the candomble house of Casa das Minas.

Colonialism and the Erosion of Principle of Gender Equality in Africa: A Philosophical Analysis

by

Theresa T. Asojo

When researchers mention egalitarian society today in Africa, it is often to lament the dismal state of things compared to the ancient African traditional culture. No thanks to colonialism. Prior to the advent of colonialism, African cultures understood that each individual whether male or female was an epitomine of uniqueness with a special destiny. Among the Yoruba Ori is the cosmic concept that links man and woman to the creator. Each person has an agreement with God to assume unique position on earth. No wonder ancient African society deemphasizes gender in relation to men and women. As Yoruba adage puts it, if a man sees a snake and a woman kills it, it does not make any difference as long as the common enemy is done away with. Unfortunately, western colonialism in its stride to impoverish African continent while enriching Europe, designed a system that raped Africa of its political, cultural and economic power, as it weakens the continent. The impoverishment of African continent, found an ally in the male African political leaders that dominate the terrain. Today African societies are in disarray and there is need to go back to the past when individuals are judged based on the content of character and not on gender basis. This study presents the diverse importance of egalitarian society taking cognizance of complimentary roles played by men and women in the society that adds to their dynamism.

The Bori Cult and Yan Daudu: Religion and Sexuality in Northern Nigeria

by

Jonathan M. Ayuba

The imposition of Islamic law in some parts of northern Nigeria since 1999 has forcefully brought gender and religious issues in the region to international attention. Enforcing strict and different rules on sexes in every aspect of life has pushed the yan daudu (feminine men) and bori (cult of possession) into the margins of society. The majority of people who participate in the bori cult are women and members of the lower classes or socially marginalised people and it is common to find the yan daudu in this marginal area of religion. Muslims in northern Nigeria consider both the bori ritual and homosexuality contrary to Islamic practice.

The aim of this paper is to contribute to the debate on marginal religion and sexual orientation in northern Nigeria. It will be argued that the continuum between heterosexuality and homosexuality is an oversimplification of a more nuanced notion of sexual identity. The social categories such as heterosexual and homosexual are not universal . For example, the Hausa category of yan daudu offers a challenge to the simple dichotomy of male-female gender identities. These men are categorised as neither male nor female but as an ambiguous middle category.

Myth and Reality of Rural Women Empowerment: The case of Selected Communities in Lagos

by

Tunji Azeez

… only through political equality may we hope to see established a true understanding and a happier relationship between the sexes. Elizabeth Robins (1909)

The agitation for gender equality for the purposes of repositioning the female gender in a highly and consciously patriarchal society has been going on for centuries now. But despite several protests, workshops and seminars, much is still left to be desired in this regard. While some governments and traditional societies are truly working towards the eradication of the barriers that place the woman in a state of second class citizens, some are just paying lip- service to the idea.

It is also an undeniable fact that by denying women active participation in decision-making processes, most African societies have suffered untold backwardness and violence which further worsens the woman’s condition and deprive her of the necessary means to self and communal development and empowerment.

Radical Privacies: Sexual Lives in the photography of Zanele Muholi

by

Gabeba Baderoon

After her death in 1815, the skeleton and genitals of Sarah Baartman, the South African woman exhibited publicly in London and Paris as the “Hottentot Venus,” were placed on display in the Musee D’ L’Homme in Paris, where they remained for 157 years. Baartman’s fate has haunted conceptions of Black female bodies in South Africa and the diaspora. In the nineteenth century, caricatured images of Baartman’s body were used to anchor a narrative of Black degeneracy and sexual deviance which became embedded in race science, a logic which has also structured two centuries of European art (Badoe, 1991). The novelist and critic Zoe Wicomb argues that Baartman’s fate symbolized “the shame [for Black women] of having had our bodies stared at” during slavery, a shame that transmuted the colonizer’s visual and sexual access to Black women’s bodies into an accusation of Black women’s deviance and sexual collusion with the colonizer (Wicomb, 1998: 92). In August 2002 Baartman’s remains were returned to South Africa and given a ceremonial burial.

With her burial, I argue that Baartman became once again a subject with an interior that is inviolable and private. I use this notion of the private to analyse the photographs of Zanele Muholi, an internationally-renowned artist and activist from South Africa, who has reframed ways of seeing Black lesbian and gay life in South Africa since 2004. In her work Muholi is intent on seeing the complexity of lesbian lives by interrupting the hostile visual logic of “hypervisibility” or the pathological insistence on the visual availability of Black female bodies (Gqola, 2005, 85). Countering this, Muholi’s photographs document the consequences of hostile visibility, but is also co-present with her subjects, her eye mutually constituted by the bodies who allow her near, trusting her to witness their violation but also their resilience and pleasures. In these images, Muholi redraws the line of the public and the private, crafting a public ordinariness for Black lesbian life in South Africa.

Culture Shock: Psychological Turmoil and the Struggle for Identity in Dangarembga’s Nervous Conditions

by

Treena Balds

An emetic nervousness epitomizes the situation in which Tambudzai Dangarembga’s young heroine in the novel Nervous Conditions, attempts to construct herself as an individual. A child of the African soil, she finds that the education she pursues induces self-interrogation, as her self-concept is challenged by the antagonistic cultures with which she is associated. This internal conflict pervades her milieu, producing tension as much within her family unit as within the individuals that constitute it. The women of the family struggle with mild to serious eating disorders—psychosomatic manifestations of their attempt at self-assertion against patriarchal repression. Yet their problems are shown to be the result of an incongruity between their desires and the dictated norms of the “tradition” to which they are expected to adhere. Their preferences often involve the replacement of aspects of African culture by substitutes introduced by European oppressors. Therefore, the usual self-versus-other dichotomy of post-structural criticism finds an analogous (yet anomalous) self-versus-self manifestation within these characters who must reconcile their desires for Western products and behaviors with the grievances of their colonial past. Finally, it is also argued that the “nervous conditions” of the text extend beyond just the characters, as the notable absence of any reference to the country’s ongoing political turmoil (and the necessity of initial publication outside of Zimbabwe) hints at nervous reactions, on the part of the author, to a repressive and patriarchal regime.

A Lexico-Syntactic Study of Gender Protest in Selected Works of Akachi Adimora –Ezeigbo

by

Temitope Abiodun Balogun

Until recently, like what used to be the order in the West, writing in Nigeria has been male dominated. Thus, many female writers who are springing up write in order to correct some of the misrepresentation that male writers have given women over time and also write to redefine the roles the literary tradition dominated by men has given to women in history. In an attempt to do this, many female writers write with assertion and aggression and thus present most of their female characters as extraordinary, highly courageous, and sometimes superhuman.

This work therefore, is an attempt to carry out a lexico-syntactic examination of selected women discourse that depicts gender protest by female writers using Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo selected texts namely: Children of the Eagle and Last of The Strong Ones as the data for the study. These texts are subjected to content analysis in order to show how the writer has manipulated language to show contest, protest and challenge to the Nigerian patriarchal structure. The work is rooted in the theory of Searle’s illocutionary force which specifies that people use different speech acts to perform various functions in communication and Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistic that emphasizes the place of function and context in communication. The study is imperative and significant because of its ability to provide insights and encouragement to the female writers to strive and write to promote complementarity instead of fighting back their male counterparts.

Authentic Motherhood: A Traditional Yoruba-African Understanding

by

Abiodun Oladele Balogun

The paper discusses the notion of authentic motherhood within the frame work of the traditional Yoruba-African society. It argues that an authentic motherhood according to the traditional Yoruba-African understanding is the one who performs all her responsibilities as stipulated by the norms and precepts of the society. It also points out that the responsibilities of an authentic mother are holistic in nature and must not be subsumed under any individual wishes or philosophy as against the belief system of the society. Moreover, the paper shows clearly that the roles and responsibilities of an authentic mother from the traditional Yoruba-African view point have spiritual, metaphysical, social, economical and moral connotations. This is because, before any person can assume the position of an authentic mother, all these roles and responsibilities must be performed. This traditional Yoruba conception is therefore different from the modern conception of motherhood, which only emphasizes economic and social roles of a mother. Furthermore, the chapter avers that the traditional Yoruba-African notion of an authentic motherhood can serve as a panacea to some of the challenges facing contemporary mothers as it relates to the spiritual and ethical issues. Moreover, for any woman to establish any authentic mother-children relationship in the contemporary times there is a need for such to embrace the notion of authentic motherhood of the traditional Yoruba thought.

Jesus’ Response towards Women Caught in Adultery as a Pastoral Liberating Vision to Africa-
South African Women Humiliated by Gender Inequality

by

Me Baloyi

From the inception of democracy in South Africa the commission on gender equality has been trying to retain the dignity of women from gender oppression. Making women better people in the society is not the responsibility of the commission alone, but it is the responsibility of everyone. Though other people are committed to engage in this battle, the church from the pastoral point of view has not done enough in this regard so far. It is not enough to only denounce oppression of women, but it is also good to act in support of the victims of this abuse. In this context, the article intends to unmask from the Jewish point of view, how the church and the community have assisted in mapping out the forms of harassment and embarrassment towards women. A re-reading of John 8:1-11 will assist the reader to understand from Jesus’ point of view how pastoral counselling can be of assistance to the victims of gender oppression and abuse. The formulations of pastoral guidelines will be deducted from Jesus’ response to the Pharisees, the Scribes, and the woman.

Violence against Women: The effect of the Law, Culture and Social Norms

by

Oluyemisi Bamgbose

 According to the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1999, Violence against women (VAW) “knows no boundaries of geography, culture or wealth. It is perhaps the most shameful human rights violation.” And, he added, it is “perhaps the most pervasive.”

Acts of violence against women these days ranges from rape, incest, child sexual abuse, forced prostitution, sexual harassment, physical assault, acid bath, harmful traditional practices (widowhood rites, female genital mutilation, male child preference, economic deprivation, neglect and abandonment) etc. The above acts can be categorized into physical, emotional, psychological, economic violence.

There are some cultural myths that victimize and therefore inflict a form of violence on women. In the same vein, there are laws that tend to encourage Violence against Women. Certain social practices are acts of violence against women. There are moves to tackle the issue of Violence against women in Nigeria. There are existing legal frame work on Violence against Women and the government has set in motion justice reforms to address the issue of violence against women in Nigeria. There are also challenges in the effort to address the issue of violence against women in Nigeria. This paper addresses VAW from the Nigerian perspective. It also discusses the extent in which the law, cultural practices and social norms have all contributed to the endemic issue of VAW in Nigeria and how laws and cultural practices can and has been used as instruments to put a stop to VAW.

Gender in Higher Education in Africa

by

Janet Nasambu Kassilly Barasa

Masinde Muliro

The terms women, gender and sexuality may be seen as distinct subjects of inquiry or interrelated terms but not one coherent term. The paper focuses on the issue of Gender in Higher Education in Africa while showing the relatedness and distinctiveness of the terms women, gender and sexuality. This is premised on the fact that education is important for the growth and development of any society in terms of human development, health, family life, political and socio-economic advancement. Similarly, higher education cannot be divorced from basic education which lays its foundation. The female gender accounts for more than 50% of the total population of Sub-Saharan Africa and Kenya in particular. However, there are great gender disparities in education right from the basic level to higher education (World Bank, 1997; 2007). Higher education is accessed in higher institutions of learning but African women rarely pursue higher education. This is not to say that none of them makes it to university. Hence, the paper seeks to examine Girl/women education in general, factors affecting women’s higher education in Africa and suggest remedies to the situation. Secondary sources of data will be used to develop the paper. The paper is encased under the Social Constructionist Approach by Bem & Coltrane (1993) which views gender acquisition as a self – fulfilling prophecy and the three key gender lenses –Gender Polarization, Androcentrism and Biological Essentialism. The paper resonates here that there are challenges facing women education and drastic measures should be taken to enhance women advancement in higher education.

African Religion and Sexual Exploitation of the Female Gender: The Nigerian Experience

by

Adepeju Adeola Johnson-Bashua

Sexual exploitation of the female gender has become a very endemic problem in the Nigerian society. This travesty is entrenched through different dynamics. They include engagements of minor girls as domestic workers, prostitutions in various formats—both voluntary—sexual engagements for quick money (Campus prostitution) and involuntary – illegal transportation of girls for prostitution in foreign countries, etc.

The usual rational for the wide spread exploitation of the female gender is the economic predicaments the nation is facing in spite of the abundance of wealth at its disposal, which unfortunately is being misappropriated by successful corrupt and inept governments at different levels. Unfortunately the fall out of the exploitation of the female gender has been a sustained embedment of women as a group in poverty and subjugation, thus turning them into second-class citizens. Another very regrettable outcome of the exploitation is the burden placed on women by the ravaging incurable HIV/AIDS. The Nigerian women more than their male counterpart have borne the larger proportion of the physical, the emotional and the psychological impact of the disease

However we are of the strong conviction that religion, in its institutional format, has a role to play in addressing the exploitation of the female gender in the Nigerian society. There is no doubt that the three religions, practices in Nigeria- Christianity, Islam and Afrel, have become intrinsic part of the human life in the society, and consequently, could constitute the bed- rock for moral and social obligations. Thus they should be able to install moral order and also control the vices associated with the exploitation of the female gender.

In particular we are of the believe that the functionally effective dynamics of African Religion through the processes of educating and sanctioning. These were successfully utilized in the traditional societies. We consequently submit that if prudently and practically modified and adopted these dynamics are capable of re-engineering and re-orientating Nigerian into a society free (substantially) of the exploitation of the female gender.

Child Prostitution and HIV/AIDS Transmission:
The Other side of Oju 'De Oba, an Ijebu-Ode Celebration

by

Gbolahan Otitoloju Bello

Sex trade in juveniles is a global problem. This form of child abuse destroys human resources and is the source of many other complicated social problems. Sexually abused children are particularly vulnerable to infection such as HIV/ AIDS. Their immaturity makes them careless both of their own safety and that of their sexual partners. This year's Oju 'De Oba, a five-day festival peculiar to Ijebu-Ode offers insight into sex trade and one of the conduits through which HIV/AIDS spread even in spite of global campaign. Ijebu-Ode people traditionally use such celebrations for travel and merry-making. Some return home for reunions with family members scattered by employment or life style. However, many young and middle-aged males and females do not spend these festive periods at home with their families. They prefer the pleasures of alcohol and sexual adventure. As this study finds, 53.8% of the people on holiday for this Oju 'De Oba celebrated with friends. Many males were seeking commercial sex. In fact, greater numbers of people than ever were going in search of commercial sex services during this year's traditional festival. One factor that drives children into prostitution is broken homes. Young women from broken families sometimes select to leave home in search of a better life. When they cannot earn a reasonable living by other means, they may be drawn into the sex trade. Women can sell sexual services through agents who serve as middlemen. Many young women can be seen plying this sort of business in or near the famous pubs along major roads. A single night's tryst costs around 2,000 and 3,000 naira. The cost varies with time and travel. Teenagers who earn money this way will spend it on alcohol, food, rent and clothes. When they discover that the business can be lucrative, the young people may persuade their friends to try this line of work as well. As more young prostitutes enter the scene, competition for customer increases, and
quarrels and fights ensue.

“Child Trafficking in Ghana”

by

Owusu Benedicta

This paper’s findings illustrate significant concerns about child trafficking from and within West Africa and go some way in explaining the level of current knowledge. For example, the cases of missing children should be screened by police to check for any possibilities of trafficking; that Local Authorities facilitate the child protection procedures to be fully accessible for all children, that is, children entering and those who have entered in the country in suspicious circumstances are better identified and screened by the immigration service; and the NGOs and statutory agencies are able to work even better together.

Some migrant children are at great risk of falling into exploitative circumstances. Better identification of these children is integral in processing our combining multi-agency response to child trafficking, from both a child safeguarding and protection and a criminal justice point of view. This necessitate a greater awareness of child trafficking at all levels and across sectors; better joined up working both within and across all sectors; more resources to provide specialist and general child protection initiatives for ‘at risk’ children; more specially tailored training of all practitioners; improved will amongst agencies and sectors to tackle the problem; and an integral change in culture and approach to ‘at risk’ migrant children.

African women’s bodies and lives on sale: Trafficking in Women and Sex Tourism

by

Codou Bop

Trafficking in African women, sex tourism, child pornography have become thriving business: first, because of abject poverty and a lack of perspectives; second, the demand that exists in rich countries of the West; and finally, the acceptance of the idea of selling African women’s body as a solution when life has become too difficult.

The trend in trafficking in women in Africa and the increase of African women used in sex tourism can be linked to increasing economic difficulties caused by neo-liberal economic policies, abduction and trafficking of girls from war torn countries and crisis of family structures which consequence is women increasingly shouldering the burden of maintaining the family.

In many African countries, international tourism has grown tremendously, with an important number of tourists coming for commercial sexual relationship with local people. This last trend has contributed to the development of sex work, pedophilia, child pornography, and other forms of sexual exploitation of children. 

Most girls who in the 80’s, fall prey of traffickers were not aware that they were likely to fall into the prostitution market, but today most trafficked girl know the future facing them and agree to it. Most girls involved in sex tourism are aware of the risks of being infected by HIV/AIDS or raped and abused, and accept it.

Through the analyze of African women’s sexual exploitation through trafficking and sex tourism, the paper will examine the development of these phenomenon in West Africa, the dynamics of gender and economy in trafficking in women and in sex tourism. It will challenge the acceptation by African families and societies of the commodification of women’s bodies.

Advertising as Reality? Defining Gay in South African Gay Print Media

by

Janeske Botes

This paper considers representations of gay men within South African gay print media advertisements. Advertisements from one edition of three gay magazines – Gay Pages, Wrapped and Exit – from both 2007 and 2009 will be analysed for various representations of gay sexuality. The advertisements will be divided into two categories: car advertisements and the advertising of other products. Various areas of discussion, including race, language, product and physical appearance will be utilised in order to further consider representations within all the advertisements. In doing so, this analysis will show that the representations of gay men in gay magazines is often skewed in favour of heterosexual representations of masculinity. Furthermore, other misrepresentations regarding race, age and physical appearances will be shown to exist. This will, in turn, be shown to link to globalisation and its relationship to identity formation. In comparing the advertisements from editions from both 2007 and 2009, continuous trends in the representations of gay men are highlighted, indicating that very little has changed in the advertising within these three publications.

The Effect of Education on the Personal Entrepreneurial Characteristics of Female Academics
in a Nigerian University: Implication for Retirement Planning

by

Simeon-Fayomi Bolanle Clara

The study assesses the effect of Education on the Personal Entrepreneurial Characteristics of female academics in Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria. In Nigeria today, there is a general phobia for retirement because it is characterized by diminished quality. For women especially, due to strength factors, it is filled with boredom and lack of financial resources. Post-retirement Entrepreneurship has therefore been considered as a viable solution. Specifically, the study aims at identifying the extent to which education influenced the Personal Entrepreneurial Characteristics (PEC) of female academics. The entrepreneurship inclination of sampled female academics were assessed by asking pertinent questions in a focused group discussion organized for two groups of female academics with different academic qualification. The analysis of the responses of the two groups revealed that female academics with lower academic qualification displayed a higher level of entrepreneurial behavior and inclination. This, in no doubt, has implications for retirement program designing and planning for female academics in Nigeria.

“The Beauty and Rightness of Our National Costume”:
Dress, Modernity, and Women’s Activism in Northern Sudan

by

Marie Grace Brown

In 1952, the Sudanese Women’s Union – Sudan’s first political party for women– declared that the adoption of the tobe as the national costume was an integral part of women’s progress and gaining increased economic and social rights. Meaning “bolt of cloth,” the tobe is a garment four meters long and two meters wide which Sudanese women wrap around their bodies when outside their homes. Formerly predominately worn by married women in Northern Sudan, by the middle of the twentieth century the tobe had become the preferred uniform of midwives, nurses, and students. For women activists of the 1950s, swept up in Sudan’s bid for independence from British colonial rule, the tobe became an appropriate representation of the nation.

Scholars often cast national dress in opposition to westernization and imperialism; however, I argue that the tobe, though a “traditional garment,” acquired new meaning as a symbol of discipline and power under colonial rule. T he tobe satisfied imperial and, later, nationalist desires for disciplined bodies and ordered spaces. At the most basic level, the tobe enabled women to enter the streets without challenging local, Islamic or imperial standards of modesty. However, as the official uniform of state-licensed midwives, the tobe created a visible corps of Sudanese participants in the colonial project, both in the streets and in the most intimate moments of birthing. Seeking to capitalize upon these imperial messages, women activists who wore the tobe were simultaneously bearers of Sudanese tradition and ready participants in a modern, ordered world.

Women in motion: the gendered space of the West African Pentecostal Diaspora in Italy

by

Annalisa Butticci

This paper illustrates the role of African women pastors in the context of migration, their profiles as religious and community leaders and their challenges as pastors, wives, mothers, workers and migrants. African Women pastors in the context of migration receive a great deal of visibility and exercise a certain degree of power and authority both within and outside the religious communities. They devise new strategies of promoting themselves both as individuals and as a group and give way to new forms of identity that are characterised by an overlap of multiple-belonging to their own experiences, community interests, cultural values and expressions of spirituality and religion. Their role is both interesting and intriguing particularly in countries with a strong catholic identity like Italy where women cannot exercises any spiritual and religious leadership role. This paper analyses the articulation of their lives in relation to the structure and agencies deployed in the Italian context of migration where they simultaneously inhabit multiple arenas in the public and private sphere.

The paper looks at African women pastors as protagonists of new Italian cultural, social, and religious scenes in which all the common features of the African Diasporas are reinterpreted and conditioned by the Italian context. Particular attention is paid to the different practices of leadership embedded within multidimensional and fluid relations of power and belongings through which women pastors experience the condition of being at the same time subject to ethnic, social, gender and religious discrimination and to recognition, admiration and consecration by African religious communities.

Decolonizing the Law and Sexuality: LGBT Organizing in Africa

by

Ashley Currier

Thanks to the efforts of multiracial lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) activists, South Africa became the first African nation to extend the right to marry to same-sex couples in 2006. This legal development followed South Africa’s enshrinement of a sexual-orientation nondiscrimination clause in the constitution (1996), decriminalization of same-sex sexual behavior (1998), the extension of immigration rights to foreign same-sex partners of South African citizens (1999) and of joint adoption rights to same-sex couples to access pension benefits jointly (1999), and the legalization of transgender persons’ ability to change their gender identity on state-issued identity documents (2004). LGBT movements in other African nations have not been able to mount legal campaigns on par with those in South Africa, due to political homophobia and efforts to increase penalties against same-sex sexualities. Part of the difficulty faced by activists in other African countries has been an inability to convince opponents that law reform is an extension of decolonization efforts initiated by national liberation movements. This presentation addresses how African LGBT activists imagine postcolonial legal possibilities through decolonization. Drawing on ethnographic research conducted in Namibia and South Africa in 2005 and 2006, I examine how southern African LGBT activists conceptualized challenges to antigay laws as an extension of national liberation movements’ platform to decolonize African countries.

The Kenyan Women’s Movement: Grassroots Education, Local Knowledge and Social Change

by

Catherine D. Cutcher

The purpose of this research is to analyze popular education and leadership development among grassroots women’s organizations in Kenya. From November 2007 - 2008, I engaged in ethnographic research among women’s organizations in the Nairobi, Taita and Lamu Districts of Kenya. Data was collected through participant observation, focus groups, individual interviews, and document analysis. Popular education is a field of growing concern among educators, activists, and others who call for informal education in the absence of effective schools. The formal education of women and girls has been neglected in Africa due to cultural, political, and economic barriers. Tensions have arisen between indigenous, Islamic, and colonial/post-colonial educational systems. Kenya reveals a 60% illiteracy rate among adult women. To respond to challenges facing their communities, Kenyan women must be educated and empowered to take action. Women’s organizations are uniquely placed to deliver popular education services. This project analyzes how women’s organizations work to educate rural and urban populations about literacy, business, finance, civic education, health, environmental restoration, sustainable development, peace, and gender equality. I seek to understand how women’s organizations build capacity in communities by raising the consciousness of ordinary citizens and enhancing their skills in problem-solving and collective action. By observing their processes of popular education, I analyze the contributions of women’s groups to social, political, economic, and environmental change in Kenya. This project is supported by the U.S. Student Fulbright Program and the American Association of University Women.

Contradiction, Conflict & Compromise: The Gender of Contemporary Nigerian Politics

by

Ademola Omobewaji Dasylva

The term “conflict” is relative, and has many layers of meaning. It exists in different shades and of varying degrees in all areas of life endeavor, including, inter and intra-gender political offices, work place, local, communal, national and international. Conflict is, largely, a growth industry and is hardly inevitable in every human interaction. However, conflict is not necessarily a dysfunctional experience. The paper interrogates circumstances of the contemporary Nigerian psychosocial milieu informed by existing cultural codes, as well as other perceived encumbrances which are factorial of the current low participation of Nigerian women in the politics of development at local, national, or international level. It advocates the need for the Nigerian society to be less partitive, but tap into the apparent leadership potentials of the Nigerian woman if a holistic development must be achieved. The paper argues that given the circumstances of a non-responsive government, dating back to the nation’s independence in 1960, the only option Nigeria is left with, is to renegotiate the male-dominated political space, and to encourage more women participation in the politics of national development. It concludes on the need to intensify efforts on national re-orientation of the society through general awareness and public interest on the question of relevant leadership skills for women in general, and women politicians, in particular by way of education and economic empowerment.

Mothering and the Critical Role of Language in the Revival of African Culture and Identity

by

Bola Dauda

The aim of this paper is to highlight the critical role of language in the ability of any individual to make sense of his or her environment. In seeing and experiencing things, we have to frame them this way or that way to make sense of them, to give them meaning. That framing of thoughts, feelings, actions and cultural norms of ‘good and bad’ (values and beliefs) are done with language. Language is critical not only for the survival of any culture but also for its revival. Language is the software for the storage, retrieval, processing and use of culture. Any threat or danger to language spells doom to a culture and consequently to the essence and identity of a people. The French know the power of language. In the colonial era, learning and speaking perfect French was enough to become ‘human’, French. Once you spoke French, you’re regarded, accepted, or ‘assimilated’ as equal to any other French. Today France ensures that all official business is conducted in French, even when the French officials speak the language of their counterparts in business. For the British, colonisation and civilisation meant a total replacement of ‘fetish beliefs’ and ‘barbarian language and culture’ with the ‘superior’ Christian faith and English language.

There is no scientific research evidence to support how much Mahatma Ghandi’s back to his cultural roots contributed to his success in mobilising Indians to fight for independence, but there is no doubt that the emergence of India as a world power owes a lot to Mahatma Ghandi’s socio-economic policy of self-reliance, and his legacy of Indians’ pride in their language, clothes and food. He made Indians proud to be Indian. Today in our global village in which an average Dutch or Italian also speaks English, French, German and Spanish, Africans are bringing up their children not only without a second language but without any African language. I cannot assess French speakers, but any high school teacher or university professor will admit that the new generation of monolingual Africans do not have enough of English language to communicate with outside world or indeed to express themselves at home.

This trend of bringing up Africans without a mother tongue and without competence in any language is not only a danger to African culture but it is of a worrying concern. After all, without being proud to be African, we are paradoxically condemned to be second class citizens at home and abroad. And how can we develop our economy when we are not proud of our skin, language, food, clothes, and any homemade goods? How can we promote decency in relations, be it in politics or in business, that’s, rule of law and fair trade, without a good mastery of language? How can we eradicate air and water borne diseases, superstition and ignorance, and poverty without a language to promote public enlightenment? Language is critical to the future of African culture.

On the Promotion of “Certain” Ugandan Women: Was Idi Amin Feminist or Foe?

by

Alicia C. Decker

Idi Amin may have been one of post-colonial Africa’s most notorious dictators because of his penchant for brutality, but he was also one of the first to elevate women to high positions of political power. He appointed women as cabinet ministers, permanent secretaries, sub-county chiefs, and even bodyguards. Was Amin an ardent feminist or did he perhaps have other reasons for promoting Ugandan women? Many of the late military ruler’s former colleagues suggest that Amin had great respect for women—that he appreciated their intelligence, beauty, and trustworthiness. Others, however, insist that his motives were more sinister. After conducting several years of extensive archival and ethnographic research, I have come to the conclusion that both perspectives are accurate, at least to some extent. In my paper, I will examine the historical circumstances surrounding these promotions, focusing specifically on the rise and fall of Elizabeth Bagaya, one of Amin’s most prominent deputies. Not only was she a princess, an international fashion model, and a London-trained barrister, Bagaya also served as Uganda’s Roving Ambassador and Minister of Defense. Amin’s decision to promote and then later fire her was part of a larger, more global conversation about gender, sexuality, and the role of women in modern society. By focusing on the experiences of Bagaya, we get a better understanding of why Amin may have promoted “certain” Ugandan women to important political and security positions. This type of analysis is important because it demonstrates the centrality of women’s labor to the military state.

‘Faire le marriage africain’ :
Women and traditional/religious and civil wedding practices in urban Burkina Faso

by

Liza Debevec

This article analyzes the position of Muslim women in urban environment in West Africa. Due to the changes brought about by the influence of the Western way of life, the social roles of men and women have changed immensely and, despite the strong presence of tradition, these changes are seen also in wedding practices. Through the life stories of female informants the article explores the path that a girl must take in order to become a woman and to achieve her officially recognized role as a married woman. Traditional expectations of the older generation are often in conflict with the more modern expectations of young women. Traditional wedding practices represent an arena for the intertwining and a more or less conflicting coexistence of traditional and modern forms of ritual life.

Jean Pierre Bekolo’s Les Saignantes (2005) and the Mevoungou: The Ambivalence towards the African Woman’s Body

by

Naminata Diabate

Questions of West African women’s sexuality have been framed in disempowering and pathological terms. HIV/AIDS, rape as weapon of war, marital rape, prostitution, and clitorecdomy, to use a less polemical term, constitute well-oiled subjects in studies of West African women’s sexuality. Similarly, most critical works on African women and “traditions” have been polarized between the construction of tradition as oppressive and its recuperation by reactionary scholarship as authentically West African. The nexus of what I call negative sexuality and tradition would, it seems, portray an utterly depressing view of African women’s sexuality. However, Jean Pierre Bekolo’s 2005 film Les Saignantes shows a rather empowering nature of Beti women’s sexuality through its adaptation of the Mevoungou, a traditional beti female secret society, predicated upon the power of the clitoris, and whose mission is to purify the community of evil forces, to restore prosperity to the entire community, as well as to empower its members against patriarchal practices.

Sainted and Wicked: Women in Cape Verdean Music

by

Juliana Braz Dias

This study deals with images of women in Cape Verdean popular music. It focuses on two musical genres: mornas and coladeiras. There are strong bonds between these musical styles. They are played together in many events, recorded in the same albums and created mainly by the same composers. Nevertheless, mornas and coladeiras are usually described one in opposition to each other. They actually form a pair of binary opposition. Mornas are sentimental, singing love, sadness, and pain. With a melancholic tone, they are desinged to touch the soul. Contrasting to mornas, coladeiras are happy and funny. They are satirical, expressing hard critical comments, and they are composed and played in order to move the body. It is in the same constrasting manner that both genres construct images of women. In mornas, women are represented as sacred beings. Both the mother and the beloved one are transformed in objects of devotion. On the other side, in coladeiras, musicians describe women as false, frivolous and dangerous. Women’s behavior is toughly criticized. This paper analyzes the coexistence of these opposite discourses about Cape Verdean women as a response to a particular type of social organization. Cape Verdean society is heterogeneous, marked by contradictory practices and values. At the domain of family organization, it is evident the concomitance of a patriarcal tradition and a matrifocal tendency. The double discourse produced by mornas and coladeiras about women offers an answer, at the symbolic level, to the contradiction between a patriarcal ideology and matrifocal practices.

‘“Towards their dazzling conclusions’:
Feminizing the Colonial Gaze in Ama Ata Aidoo’s Our Sister Killjoy”

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Carrza L DuBose

This paper examines the impacts of colonialism and imperialism through a study of Ama Ata Aidoo’s novel Our Sister Killjoy (1977). In examining this highly influential novel, I show how Aidoo criticizes the institutions of colonialism and imperialism from the viewpoint of a Ghanaian female character named Sissy. The context of this novel, the 1960’s, has a negative impact not only on African males, but African women, particularly African female students who live under a dominant patriarchal influence. The negative impacts are felt once Sissy leaves Ghana and moves to Europe. Aidoo displays the importance non-Africans/Africans place on the value of African manhood in relation to African womanhood. Sissy critiques African men who live in Europe and yet continuously subscribe to archaic notions of oppressive gender roles. Sissy is criticized for her intelligence and non-conformist behavior because she does not subscribe to traditional roles designed for African women. Sissy ultimately understands sexism’s pervasiveness throughout the world and realizes the complicated relationship between sexism and colonialism/imperialism. This paper includes Aidoo’s view about the conflicts between Africa and Europe from the perspective of a woman, places African women at the center of gender politics in the context of colonial/imperial rule, and displays how differently African men and women think about European power in Ghana. The double-consciousness theory of W.E.B. DuBose is employed to unearth the intersection of post-coloniality/imperialism and gender in Aidoo’s novel. Many African male scholars and novelists privilege the negative effects colonialism/imperialism has on Africans over gender bias. By moving the gaze of imperialism and colonialism away from a purely masculinist perspective, Ama Ata Aidoo subverts essential male authoritative perspectives on Europe’s dominion over Africa.

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Ernest N. Emenyonu

Have you ever looked at a girl’s skin and felt that if you pinched her she would shed blood? A skin as smooth as glass…Her skin would make your blood flow in the wrong direction. She was so sweet and sexy, knew how to romance. She married at sixteen. But she wanted more fun. Yet it ended at seventeen. And what an end? (Speedy Eric, Mabel: The Sweet Honey That Poured Away.)

In 1948 Cyprian Ekwensi wrote what has since been recognized as the first in the genre of Pamphlet Literature (Onitsha Market Literature) in Nigeria; what Emmanuel Obiechina, the Nigerian literary elder statesman, has identified as ‘Literature for the Masses.’ When Love Whispers was sensual, suspenseful, and fast-paced. Many of the pamphlets that followed the trail, were rapturously seductive, emotionally traumatizing, but neither challenged the mind nor left anything to imagination. But their sensational appeal to young adolescents was unrivalled in the history of Nigerian Literature till perhaps, the emergence of Hadley Chase romances in the 1970’s and 80’s. With the exception of Ekwensi, virtually all the authors of the sensuous pamphlets remained anonymous. Ekwensi pushed some major elements of lustful exoticism into his adult fiction especially in Jagua Nana (1961) and Jagua Nana’s Daughter (1986), before seeming puritanical public outcries (against corruption of youth in a new independent nation) , and what Ekwensi was to see as his ‘hounding by critics’, came in the way.

This paper explores in depth, the trends in selected Pamphlets and Ekwensi’s aesthetics in Jagua Nana and Jagua Nana’s Daughter to determine whether the phenomenal sexuality was a mere manifestation of prurient fantasy or a blocked literary ‘gate-way’ to an evolving Nigerian erotica.

Gendering Diasporas in Ghana:
Memory, Identity, ‘Race’ and Activities of American African Women, 1957-2010

by

Kwame Essien

The mid 1900s witnessed the exodus of American’s of African descent to Ghana for political, cultural, economic, and social reasons. Though scholars have examined aspects of these repatriations to Ghana and other African countries, the case of American African women has been overwhelmingly neglected. This paper fills in this gap by arguing that gender dynamics played a major role in the ways in which this historical account was represented and constructed. American African women who joined the bandwagon after Ghana’s independence on March 6, 1957 but their presence were overshadowed by men. However, these women made significant contributions to Ghanaian society despite their difficulty in assimilating into it. My paper complicates our understanding of diasporas in Ghana as it uses the case of these women who came from various socio-economic and cultural backgrounds to connect the history of American Africans and Ghanaians. This is done through the common threads of slavery, ‘race,’ migrations, identity and cultural reconstructions; oppression and gender dynamics, transnationalism—that run through the Americas and Africa as a result of the Middle Passage.

Gender and Sexuality in the Music of Fela Anikulapo Kuti

by

Sheyi Kehnny Ezekiel

Fela Anikulapo Kuti musical life spanned through a period of almost four decades, from the 1960s through to the 1990s. When he first started in the 1960s his brand of music “highlife” which he performed with other artistists to have a Pan-Africanist content.

Initially he sang songs that were generally not political, in his native Yoruba tongue and in English (albums like “water no get enemy” and A lu jonjon ki jon”. But he soon started to sing anti-establishment songs, which very quickly brought him in collision with both imperialism and their local agents in power at home.

Breaking the Walls of Tradition: Male Braiders in Nigeria

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Sati U. Fwatshak

 In the past, braiding was an exclusively female occupation in the traditional gender division of labor in Nigeria. Today, the situation has changed with the entry of male competitors. The aim of this paper is to historicize and discusses the entry of males into braiding as an occupation in Nigeria, as crossing the borderline in the gender division of labor in this occupation agitates the mind and begs the questions: What accounts for the breaking of the wall of this tradition? How did men, as “odd” entrants break into the trade? Are practitioners competitive with females in this occupation? Otherwise, what are the challenges? Are there lessons to learn? To answer these and other questions, data collection will be collected mainly through oral interviews, based on semi-structured questions, with male braiders and also with some of their clients in different major Nigerian cities. Interviews will be supplemented with secondary materials. The paper will be presented in a descriptive and analytical style.

Gendered Violence and Power Relations in the Drama of Tracie Utoh-Ezeajugh

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Ameh Dennis Akoh

Feminism and feminist scholarship in Nigeria presents an elastic field of polemics and sometimes, even, musings. This ‘tenebrous sense of survival’ makes it also an unending controversy and an in-definitive gulag of naming and misnaming. The paper takes a brief tour of this controversy as it relates to feminist drama in Nigeria within the last three decades and in the light of its changing phases between feminism(s) and womanism(s). This paper focuses on the drama of Tracie Utoh-Ezeajugh. Utoh-Ezeajugh is herself no longer a ‘new’ voice in Nigerian drama, having made her debut in 1999 with Who Owns this Coffin and Other Plays. Since this outing, she has published about four other plays, all of which betrays the above scenario. The paper explores the search for progress and utopia in these plays within the power relations that give impetus to feminist deconstruction and theory within post-military, post-modern, and post-feminist waves in Nigerian drama. It relates her drama with those of other feminist dramatists in Nigeria with the aim of delineating what makes the dramatist different in the entire attempt at ‘speaking back’ to the patriarchal and imperial center.

The Ceremony of the Umbilical Cord: When Women’s Health is Sacrificed at the Altar of Culture in Kenya

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Nancy Gakahu
Egara Kabaji
Lydia Anyonje

This paper notes that reproductive rights of women in Kenya are downplayed in favour of cultural aspects. There is an unfortunate reminder that women shoulder the burden of reproductive work, and sometimes they pay the ultimate prize. It is also noted that despite the knowledge of this scenario, the government has failed to enact policies that ensure safe reproduction. Unless quick action is taken,women in Kenya will continue to suffer lasting damage to their health especially in relation to reproduction.

“Math Hurts the Delicate Female Frame:”
An Analysis of the Challenges of Six Graders in Cape Coast- Ghana

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Francis E. Godwyll
Mary Naana Essiaw

Through the ‘hidden Curriculum,’ gender bias polarization towards certain subjects, categorization of careers into “men’s” jobs and “women’s” jobs have led many to suggest that the study of science and math could harm the delicate woman frame and that the woman’s place should be the kitchen. The turn of the century has seen a radical feminist movement with a lot of discourses about women‘s emancipation. One of the weapons that have been identified for the emancipation of women is education. This study sought to explore the challenges that sixth grade girls in the Cape Coast Municipality face in studying mathematics. A sample size of 252 randomly selected sixth graders from 21 schools was used. Some of the findings of the study included among others the following: Most teachers involuntarily and unknowingly become the vectors of social conformity, making girls feel less confident about their ability and place in the field of math. Girls in single-sex schools perform better in math than those in mixed schools.

The exclusion of females from the scientific and technological profession through their non/low participation in math and its related fields marginalizes them from this vital component of growth and development.

“Watch this Woman: Political widowhood and the story of Catherine Mary Ajizinga Chipembere of Malawi

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Natasha Gordon-Chipembere

This paper investigates how Catherine Chipembere, widow of Henry Masauko Chipembere of Malawi was used by the ruling political party (UDF) after her return from exile of 31 years, to gain a platform to win elections and mobilize a “new vision” of Malawi based upon the principals of her late husband.  As Ramphele so eloquently posits, “The public role of the political widow derives from her relationship with her husband; she is not seen as a woman but as someone standing in for a fallen man.” Catherine Chipembere serves as a representative for her late husband, who dies five years into exile in Los Angeles in 1975. She is left to raise seven children by herself. Her story is a testimony of survival.  After gaining a BA in Childhood Education and putting her seven children though school in Los Angeles, she is sought out by the post-Banda government to return home to Malawi. With a personal invitation by the then presidential candidate, Catherine returns home to a hero’s welcome.  She is instantly swept up into the fervor of elections and begins to campaign. She becomes the Deputy Minister of Education in 1995. 

As a woman committed to her husband’s dream of equity, she is stunned at the paucity of educated women in Malawi and the lack of their representation in all sectors of government. One of the few women in a ministerial position, Catherine begins to advocate for women and young girls.  In 1998 she forms an NGO, WIN MALAWI (Women’s Initiative Network) which established the first 12 pre-schools in Malawi and provides continuous self-help workshops for young girls and women so that they can sustain themselves and their families.   It is at this critical time when Catherine has gained a powerful public voice, putting forth her own ideas about educating women that she chose in her private life to re-marry.  It is here that her status as political widow was challenged in the public/patriarchal sector. Used as an icon to symbolize her late husband’s visionary work, Catherine’s decision to remarry after 25 years alone and maintaining her Chipembere surname infuriated the men around her who sought to constrain her “public” body by ways of eliminating agency in her private space. She is a public figure and her divergence from this public role poses a serious threat to the men in government. Ultimately, the Chipembere clan sues Catherine because of her insistence in keeping the Chipembere surname though she is a “Marama” in marriage.  Through a very public sensationalized legal battle, Catherine gets to keep her Chipembere surname, but the president is ultimately persuaded by the strong Chipembere clan to strip Catherine of her ministerial position and relegate her to the rural area of Mangochi, the homeland of the Chipembere struggle.  Because Catherine does not relinquish the control of her personal life, she risks everything in order to be her own person, thus sacrificing her public voice and her ability to make “sanctioned” changes for women and young girls.  She is left as a “forsaken” widow, ridiculed, poor and invisible; removed from the public eye as a viable character who can initiate change. She is silenced. This paper seeks to problematize the role of Catherine as a political widow and how ultimately her agency is constrained under the guise of the public good.

Sexual Transgression as Acts of Illusory Emancipation and Fatal Repression

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Raoul J. Granqvist

The concept of transgression suggests a violation of normalcy, of what at any point in time and place, is considered to be normal. Sexual transgression is not different. In this presentation, I will discuss and polarize varieties of it as they are embedded in the two 'African' novels, 'My Son and I' (Min son och jag) and 'With Five Diamonds' (Med fem diamanter), by the Swedish writer Sara Lidman. The first is set in apartheid's Johannesburg, from where the writer was expelled (on 28 February 1961) for befriending the ANC Youth League secretary Peter Nhite (and Nadine Gordimer), and the second in fresh post-colonial Kenya, where Lidman went to live in 1963. The two doubly oppositional settings (external/internal and colonial/post-colonial) represent antagonistic and ambiguous views of sexuality. Whether normalcy's transgressions are racist and heterosexual as in the South African case or kinship-related and homosexual as in the Kenyan, it is abortive, as I will show. Lidman's pessimism stands out as a healthy exception in the European writing in/on Africa from this era.

Gender Accounting: A Paradigm for Ensuring Gender Equity Towards Sustainable Development

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Benjamin Kumai Gugong
Mansur Lubabatu Kwanbo

Since independence, Nigeria’s effort at development that is sustainable has been bedeviled by a lot of factors despite her endowment with abundant resources. One factor which has been identified as the root cause of this is the problem of gender equity in the formal sector of her labor force. The objective of this paper therefore, is to establish if the absence of gender equity affects the process of development and the extent to which such gender specification in the labor force affects sustainable development. To this end, primary and secondary sources of data were used. The primary sources of data were employed in a cross section of the formal sector of the labor market in Kaduna State Civil Service, while descriptive statistics as in ANOVA and multi Regression analysis were used as the techniques for data analysis. The study discovers that a significant relationship exist between gender equity in the labor force and the country’s development. This was discovered to be a result of the complimentary roles of the female gender (natural and domestic) which to some extent has reduced the level of poverty, hence development. In the light of this, the paper recommends among others that for the country to attain the objective of development that can be sustained, employment procedures should emphasize equity in gender for all intent and purposes.

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Africa Conference 2010: Women, Genders, and Sexuality in Africa

Convened by Dr. Toyin Falola and Coordinated by Saheed Aderinto for the Center for African and African American Studies

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